Study Material

  1. Boolean Algebra Basics Boolean Algebra deals with variables that take two values only : 0 (false/LOW) 1 (true/HIGH) The main operations are: AND (·) → Output is 1 if both inputs are 1 . OR (+) → Output is 1 if at least one input is 1 . NOT (') → Output is the complement of the input. 2. Basic Boolean Laws Here are some important laws of Boolean algebra : Identity Laws A + 0 = A A · 1 = A Null Laws A + 1 = 1 A · 0 = 0 Idempotent Laws A + A = A A · A = A Complement Laws A + A' = 1 A · A' = 0 Involution Law (A')' = A 3. DeMorgan’s Theorems Two very important rules: (A · B)' = A' + B' (A + B)' = A' · B' 👉 These are very useful for simplification and circuit design. 4. Duality Principle Every Boolean expression remains valid if: + is replaced with · 0 is replaced with 1 (and vice versa). Example: (A + 0) = A Dual → (A · 1) ...

  Lesson 1: The Problem with Files (and why we need a DBMS) Imagine you own a small online store. Initially, you might manage your business using spreadsheets, just like a regular file system. You'd have: Customers.xlsx (with customer names, addresses) Products.xlsx (with product names, prices) Orders.xlsx (with who ordered what, and the customer's shipping address) This works for a while, but as your store grows, you'll run into some major headaches. 🤯 Problem 1: Data Redundancy (Duplication) Notice that the customer's shipping address is in Customers.xlsx AND in Orders.xlsx . You're storing the same piece of information in multiple places. This is data redundancy . It wastes space and leads to the next big problem. Problem 2: Data Inconsistency A customer, Rohan, moves to a new house. He emails you his new address. You update his address in your main Customers.xlsx file, but you forget to update it in the Orders.xlsx file for a recent order he placed. Now ...

Part 1: Structure and Properties of an Algorithm 1. What is an Algorithm? An algorithm is a step-by-step set of instructions to solve a specific problem. Example: If you want to make tea: Boil water. Add tea leaves. Add sugar. Add milk. Stir and serve. That’s an algorithm — but in cooking terms. Properties of a Good Algorithm Definiteness → Every step must be clear and unambiguous. Finiteness → Must end after a finite number of steps. Input → Takes zero or more inputs. Output → Produces at least one output. Effectiveness → Steps are basic enough to be done by hand or by computer. Example in Computing: Problem: Find the largest of two numbers A and B. Algorithm: Start. Input A and B. If A > B, print A. Else, print B. Stop. 📍 Flowcharts A flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm, using different shapes to represent different actions. Common Flowchart Symbols Symbol Meaning ⭕ Oval Start / End ⬜ R...

 PAPER 1: PROGRAMMING IN ‘C’ WITH DATA STRUCTURES (MCA540)  Unit 1 : Algorithm development and C language Programming: Structure and properties of algorithm,   Flowchart, Introduction to C, Compilation & execution of C programs, , Data types & sizes, Declaration of variables, Modifiers, Identifiers & keywords, Symbolic constants, Operators: Unary operators, Arithmetic & Logical operators, Bit-wise operators, Assignment operators and expressions, Conditional expressions, Precedence & associativity, order of evaluation. Control statements: If-else, Switch, Break, Continue, Go-to statement; Loops: For, While, Do-while.  Unit 2: Functions and Arrays: Functions: Built-in & User-defined, Function declaration, Definition &function call, Parameter passing: Call by value, Call by reference, Recursive functions. Linear arrays, Multi-dimensional arrays, passing arrays to functions, Arrays & Strings; Storage classes: Automatic, External, Regi...